Study Notes for Colleges and Universities

Classification of statistical data is made on the basis of the characteristics possessed by individuals in different groups of the units of the world. There are two groups: (i) classification on the descriptive characters. (ii) classification on the numerical characters. Classification According to Attributes This is same as saying classification on descriptive basis. This type of classification can be studied by the following methods. 1. Simple classification 2. Manifold classification. 1.         Simple Classification We know, that examples of descriptive are like study of friendship, love, poverty, liberty, and sex. In simple classification, only one problem is selected and is researched on, by dividing it into different subsection, or classes of two groups only. For example, poverty problems are put in one group and others in another group. If we want to study literacy then we put the group who are literate in one c...

The classification of data largely depends upon the nature, scope and purpose of the investigation. Following are some of the characteristics of ideal classification. i.          Classification should not be Ambiguous There should not be ambiguity in the classification, if so, it would kill the purpose of classification. By classification, we aim at filtering down the ambiguity therefore if there is any ambiguity, it would spoil the purpose. Various classes should be defined in such a way that there should be no doubt or confusion in the mind of the reader. For example, population census is divided in two classes i.e., literate and illiterate. For people to understand what is meant by those two classes, we must define clearly what we mean by literate and illiterate, so that by looking at the population data, we can compare between literate and illiterate persons in the population data. The classification of clear data without any am...

Modern statistics provides research workers with knowledge, it is a young subject a product of the twentieth century. For scientist, it is a rapidly growing subject with much original materials still not available in texts. It grows as statisticians find answers to more and more of the problems posed by research workers. When discussing the subject matter of statistics, we have to deal with its properties such as, is statistics a science or an art. Actually statistics is not a science in subject as other natural sciences such as Physics, Chemistry or Biology, it is a scientific method in its true form. Strictly speaking statistics is the science, pure and applied of creating, developing, and applying techniques such that the uncertainty of inductive inferences may be evaluated. This explains to us the subject matter of statistics thus we can say that statistics is both a science as well as an art. It is a science in the sense that it is a pure scientific methods of doing rese...

My dear Home land Pakistan which came in to existence on 14 th August 1947 as a result of partition of India on the basis of two nation theory is really a gift of God for we people. It is full of beautiful natural scenes. God in His Bounty hath blessed Pakistan with great physical resources and charms, it is the land of Mighty Mountains, murmuring and gurgling rivers sparking, springs, deep and dense forests, lush green fields and meadows and rugged highlands and parch low lands. For the lovers of nature Pakistan ’s Northern Areas present a mighty feast of variety to the person who happens to visit these areas. The changing terrain and the topography, the snow covered peaks and the gorges mountains and valleys, table lands and terraces, rough and rugged tracks, the winding and narrow routes along the Malakand hills, the cataracts and the caynons, the riotous rivers, the thirst quenching springs, the brakes and the bushes, the sentinel like trees, chunar and people ente...

We are living in the age of communication and information explosion. The public media-Radio, Television and press are banging and hawling twenty four hours. The easy, cheap and quick means of communication have brought the distant corners of the world closer. We can say that world has shrunk; developing countries are in constant contact with the developed world. They are benefiting from their experiences. The newspaper is the main organ of communication. It contains both news and views on matters of public and national importance. It now a day stands for mass communication it plays a versatile role in national life and in promoting international understanding and friendship. The newspapers enables the people to know about the happening and important events in the country, states and the world at large. The more advanced country is the more organized and powerful in the press. And the more educated and cultured are the people, the most they expect from the press, if developing soc...

Garry Adams once said “I have realized that it is much more difficult to make peace than to make war”. No where is it more evident than in hollowed rooms of the United Nations. The world body was just born in the 14 points of Wood draw Wilson . His vision found very few supporters among his contemporaries and the world paid dearly for it in the shape of Second World War while there were various factors that led to the hostilities, on the was the weakness of the league of Nations. The European Leaders found themselves without any medium to resolve the communication gap between them and Nazi Germany. This short coming was realized only after countless lives had been lost in the most wide-ranging conflict till far. The answer was the United Nations the UN has been supposedly entrusted with the task of preventing any future conflict from escalation while it has various parts of the world; however, it has been the only forum where all warning sides have shown any willingness to negotiate...

In this world nothing can be had without labour. Infact it is labour and industry, which has contributed to the progress of civilization. Where would the world have been to day if no one had worked, certainly it would have been dark, unshaped heap of different objects. Due to the existence of labour now the world is in the beautiful shape. Islam is the religion of nature it shows the perfect way of life. Labour has got lot of importance in Islam. In a tradition Holy Prophet (Peace be upon him) said “The Labour is the friend of God” it shows that how much importance Islam is giving to the Labour. Holy Prophet (Peace be upon him) worked with his own hands. He loved to work with his own hands for himself and for others as well. When mosque at Madina was being built Holy Prophet (Peace be upon him) along with his companions worked there Holy Prophet (Peace be upon him) repaired his shoes and clothes with his own hands. He helped his wives in house hold works also.  Hazrat Ali...

A country frames its foreign policy in the light of its domestic policies. Foreign policy of a country does not remain static but it changes according to time and circumstances Pakistan ’s principles of foreign policy are its ideology and national integration. Pakistan came into being on 14 th of August 1947 and it inherited the legacy of foreign policy from the British India . However it made some adjustments in accordance with its ideology and objectives of Pakistan movement. Its foreign policy was determined by three factors (i) Security (ii) Development (iii) Ideology. Its security has remained the core stones of its foreign policy, because of its geographical location and historical background. Its relationship with super powers and regional powers have been fluctuating according to political weather, injecting a permanent feelings of uncertainty in their friendship. Thus Pakistan ’s foreign policy underwent changes to exigencies of time and requirement of international s...

Teacher is architect or builders of the nation. Unlike the work of an architect the noble work of a teacher can not be seen by human eyes, because the teacher works in the quarry of human hearts secretly and silently the hidden work of a teacher has far reaching effects on human character, for teaching is people’s job. A teacher has strength and wisdom of diverting the attention of student to the desired goal. A teacher can reform any system by his sagacity. In our country day by day standard of education is going towards decline. Now student are in habit of using unfair means in the examinations. Now the purpose of examinations and education is only to get degree. Now the ignorant, unskilled and illiterate army of youth having so called degrees is roaming here and there for jobs. If they succeed in getting jobs their performance is not worthy of praise. The development progress and prosperity of any nation depends on skilled and educated persons of the society when Americans...

Terrorism is an instrument in the hands of frustrated and dissatisfied minority against strong dominant majority in order to achieve its goals which are denied in peaceful political setup. For the use of threat of violence, the goals of terrorist differ from those of ordinary criminals. Most criminals want money or some other form of gain-but most terrorist commit crime to support political cause. The word terrorism was used first time during the “French Revolution”. Some of the revolutionaries who seized power in France adopted policy of violence against the enemies. The period of their rule was known as the “reign of terror”. The man cause of terrorism is the political and economics exploitation of oppressed majority by the people who enjoy the power of ruling. In the intoxication of power they make themselves deaf and dumb towards the rights of the deprived groups. When deprived groups are aloof from social activities, this sense of deprivation creates dissatisfaction in ...

At the time of the dawn of Islam woman all over the world in degraded position and without any rights and was considered as non-entity. Since the beginning of the industrial revolution, she has been asserting her rights in the western countries and has now been given certain political and economic rights. But Islam recognized Woman’s position fourteen hundred years ago and granted her, her due rights and privileges which are not enjoyed by woman in other faiths, systems and societies even in this modern computer age. Islam recognizes woman as an equal and full partner to man. Both enjoy equal rights and undertake equal responsibilities. In holy Quran Allah says “O man kind! Be careful of your duty to your Lord, Who created you from a single soul and from it created it mate and from them twain has spread a multitude of men and woman” They are equal in nature and origin, as at an other place Quran says”. And God has given you mates of your own nature, and has given you from the chi...

Statistics is a discipline which has been developed by business experts, Mathematicians, Economists, Psychologists and many others to extract the relevant facts from a large body of information and to help people make decisions when uncertainty exists concerning the information. In order to answer certain important questions or problems arising from business situations, one has to gather information or data. Thus data must be collected properly analysed efficiently presented in an orderly and coherent fashion and interpreted correctly. All these functions fall into the realm of statistics. Broadly speaking, statistics is the study of a problem from a numerical point of view. This implies that a problem must be capable of being reduced to a measurable scale or numerical quantities, in order to use the tools and techniques of statistics. Statistics is a scientific method whose ultimate aim is to enable comparison to be made between the past and present results, with a view to...

Statistics is a scientific method of doing things; it should not be thought of a subject correlative with physics, chemistry, economics and sociology, it is not a science but it is purely a scientific method. In order to understand the nature of statistics, we must look at it as we see that statistics is not mathematics just as Accounting is not mathematics, although the statistical methods are basically mathematical. In the modern world phenomena are many and various, such as Chemical, Physical, Biological, Geographical, Social, Psychological, Economic, Business, etc. Each of these phenomena has its own peculiarities, characteristics and problems. For studying any phenomena for some practical purposes, some method is required. There are various statistical methods that can be used in studying certain phenomena in order to enable the people to understand how the problems raised and how it can be prevented if the need arises.  The nature of the statistics is understood fro...

Student life is a temporary period of man’s life but it is of vital importance. It is the time when the seed of future prosperity and happiness is to be sown. As he will sow at this stage of life. So will he reap in his later life. Therefore an ideal student is to cultivate all the good qualities of a man during this time in order to built a happy life later in future. The first and topmost responsibility/duty of a student is that he should not waste his time and energy butt seeks teacher’s guidance and utilize his every moment for his advancement. It is said that constant and unbroken reading makes a person dull. It also affects one’s health. So student must take interest in games because games make them active and develop their character. It is the responsibility of the student to obey the rules of discipline in and outside the school. He does not go against the rules. He is well-behaved and respects his teachers, parents and elders. He is helpful, truthful, cheerful and co...

Co-education means educating both sexes, boys and girls together in an institute or in a class. In our country there is co-education in some colleges and schools, but in most colleges and schools there is arrangement for separate education for boys as well as for girls. Co-education has remained controversial issue in our country. Some people are in favour of this system and want to introduce it in all schools and colleges. They say that this system is very useful. They give many arguments in its favour. Their main argument is that in a poor and backward country like Pakistan it is very difficult to maintain separate institutions for boys and girls. Therefore co-education also says that in progressive society young boys and girls should come closer. Co-education would provide an opportunity to the young boys and girls to understand each other. This would be very helpful for them in future life. It would also be good for the progress of the country. Another argument is that, co-e...

The history of progress of the human race is the history of education. Hence it is necessary for every person, man or woman, to be educated. Women should be educated like men, otherwise there can be no real progress and half of the population will remain illiterate. Napoleon was once asked what the greatest need of France was. He answered, “Motherland’s National progress is impossible without trained and educated mothers”. If the women in any country are not educated, about half the people in that country will be ignorant. The result is that such a country will not be able to go along with other nations in development and progress. Education teaches a woman what she should be. An educated lady will be a good friend, a clever nurse and useful adviser to her husband. She will be a true helpmate. She can retain her husband’s affection and regards. An uneducated lady is always unable to share in his interests. There is a saying in English, “the hand that rocks the cradle, ...